Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is “a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.” Most people are familiar with Pavlov’s work with dogs.

Unconditioned Stimulus  (Dog Food) g Conditioned Response (Salvation)
Conditioned Stimulus (Bell) paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (Dog Food) g Unconditioned Response (Salvation)
Conditioned Stimulus (Bell) g Conditioned Response (Salvation)

Work Context: Employees associate an action (working hard to complete a project) with a following action (receiving a bonus), and then they expect the following action (bonus) each time the initial action (working hard) appears.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory suggests people are motivated by consequences, the effects of the consequences on a particular behavior influence the future occurrence of that behavior. Skinner identifies four types of conditioning:

Conditions that strengthen a behavior:

Negative reinforcement - This is a process of having a stress related task taken away as a consequence of a behavior. (You perform your job well, therefore you no longer have to answer the phones.)

Reinforcement schedules: 

Fixed Interval Schedule is where reinforcement is only given after a certain amount of time has elapsed. Therefore, if you decided on a 5-second interval then each reinforcement would occur at the fixed time of every 5 seconds.

Fixed Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is given only after a predetermined number of responses. This is often seen in behavior chains where a number of behaviors have to occur for reinforcement to occur.

Variable Interval Schedule is where the reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time between each reinforcement.

Variable Ratio Schedule is where the reinforcement is given after a varying number of correct responses.

Need Hierachy Theory - Maslow

Maslow developed a “hierarchy of needs” or an order of needs that need to be fulfilled in each person. It is suggested that 'a need once satisfied no longer motivated’.

The five needs lowest to highest:

1. Physiological Needs: The basic need for food, water, air, sleep and sex.

2. Safety Needs: The need for physical safety (need for shelter) and the need related to psychological security (peace of mind).

3. Social Needs: The need to be accepted by others and the need for love, affection, and friendship.

4. Esteem Needs: The need to be recognized for accomplishments and to be admired and respected by peers.

5. Self-Actualization Needs: The need to reach one’s highest potential and to attain a sense of fulfillment.  This is the highest-level need.

• Genentech - After six years the employee receives 6 month paid sabbatical.
• Google - The employees receive free meals, a swimming spa, and free doctors onsite. Engineers can spend 20% of their time on independent projects. No wonder Google gets 1,300 résumés a day.
• Container Store  -Storage retailer pays sales employees 50% to 100% above industry average. Nearly one-tenth of all employees take advantage of a “family friendly” shift, from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., allowing for school drop offs and pickups.
• Network Appliance (NTAP)  - enhanced benefits for parents of special-needs children, widespread use of flexible schedules (95% of employees), and a soaring stock (up 50% in 2006).
• Boston Consulting Grp. - Employees working more than 60 hours a week are placed in a “red zone”and advised by a career mentor. Starbucks
• Starbucks - Though 85% of “partners” (Starbucks-speak for their employees) work part-time, they are still eligible for full benefits if they work 240 hours a quarter.

The link below displays some of the best Fortune 500 companies to work for:

http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/bestcompanies/2007/full_list/index.html

ERG Theory - Alderfer

Alderfer, similar to Maslow, suggests three levels of motivators:

Existence – Concern with basic material existence motivators.  (Physiological and safety needs)
Relatedness – Motivation we have for maintaining interpersonal relationships. (Social and esteem needs)
Growth – Intrinsic desire for personal achievement. (Self-Actualization needs)

Achievement Motivation Theory - McClelland

McClelland and his associates developed a measure to test which three needs motivated workers:

1. Need for Achievement:

Love the challenge of work
Desire to get ahead in the job
Solve problems
Outstanding work performers
Task oriented
Prefer situations offering moderate levels of risk or difficulty
Desire feedback about goal attainment

Want to be liked and accepted by others
Strive for friendships
Concerned with interpersonal relationships on the job
Prefer working with others on a task
Want cooperative rather than competitive work situations

Direct and control activities of others
Be influential
Status oriented
Gain influence and prestige
Power – Personal to achieve personal goals
Power- Organizational 

Two Factor Theory - Herzberg

 “If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do.”  Herzberg suggests that motivators and hygienes are important in determining worker satisfaction and motivation.

Motivators – are elements related to job content, when present they lead to job satisfaction.  These motivators include items such as responsibility, achievement recognition, work content, advancement and job growth.

Hygienes- are elements related to job context that when absent, cause job dissatisfaction.  These hygienes include items such as; company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, salary.

Goal Setting Theory - Locke, Lewin, Drucker

To motivate employees they must understand their goals.  The goals must be:

Clear – the employee needs to understand what the goal
Specific –
Attainable – the goal has to be doable.  If the employee sees no way to accomplish the goal it will be anything but motivating.
Quantifiable – Although it is not always possible, when a non-arbitrary number can be applied to the goal, the employee and the employer will be able to measure if and when the goal has been met.

Job Characteristic Model - Hackman and Oldham

This theory emphasizes the role certain aspect of the job play in influencing work motivation.  An equation was developed to calculate MPS (Motivating Potential Score).

MPS = Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance X Autonomy X Feedback
dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd3
Skill Variety – degree to which the job requires workers to use a variety of abilities and skills to perform work related tasks. A job that requires a range of skills is more challenging and meaningful.
Task Identity – degree to which a job requires the completion of an entire job or function.  Worker needs to see outcome or product resulting in their efforts.
Task Significance – degree to which a job has a substantial impact on other people within the organization, such as co-workers or persons outside of the organization (customers or vendors).
Autonomy – the degree to which the job gives the worker freedom and independence to choose how to schedule and carry out necessary tasks.
Feedback – degree to which the job allows the worker to receive direct and clear information about the effectiveness of their performance.

Equity Theory - Adams

Workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities between work inputs and outcomes.  The worker’s perception is their reality.

Inputs – Elements a worker invests in the job (effort, experience).
Outputs – Things that worker expects to receive from a job (pay, recognition, interesting and challenging work).
Comparison to others – Persons used as a basis for comparison judgments of equity or inequity.
Underpayment Inequity – Worker’s perception that inputs are greater than the outcomes.  The worker is motivated to try to balance the situation by increasing outcomes, decreasing inputs, changing the comparison of others, or leave the situation.
Overpayment Inequity – Worker’s perception that outcomes are greater than inputs.  The worker is motivated to try and balance the situation by increasing inputs, decreasing outcomes, changing comparison of others, or distorting the situation.

There are three types of employees.

Benevolents/Givers – These workers are altruistic and are relatively content with receiving lower outcomes for their inputs.
Entitleds/Takers – These workers are concerned with receiving high outcomes regardless of levels of inputs.
Equity Sensitives – These workers adhere to notions of equity.  They become distressed when feeling underpayment inequity, and quit when over-rewarded.

Expectancy Theory - Vroom

A rational theory of motivation that states the worker weighs expected costs and benefits of particular courses before they are motivated to take action.  M = E * I * V

M = Motivation
E = Expectancy – the perceived relationship between the individual’s effort and performance of behavior. (Do I have the ability and skills to get the job done?)
I = Instrumentality – the perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the likelihood of receiving a particular outcome. (What are the odds if I perform well, will I receive a raise?)
V = Valence – the desirability of an outcome to an individual. (Is it positive, negative or neutral?  If it is positive, then it is motivating.)

Theory X and theory Y - McGregor

Theory X assumes that the primary source of most employee motivation is monetary with security a strong second.

Assumptions:

• Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work whenever possible.
• Most people are not ambitions, have little desire for responsibility and prefer to be directed.
• Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems.
• Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy.
• Most people are self-centered.  As a result, they  must be closely controlled and often coerced to achieve organizational objectives.
• Most people resist change.
• Most people are gullible and unintelligent.

Hard Approach to Motivation relies on coercion: implicit threads, micro-management and tight controls on the environment of command and control.
Soft Approach to Motivation – Be permissive and seek  harmony in the hopes that in return, employees will cooperate when asked.

Theory Y assumes higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that these needs are never satisfied. 

Assumptions:

• Work can be as natural as play if the work conditions are favorable.
• People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational objectives if they are committed to them.
• People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in place that addresses higher needs such as self-fulfillment.
• Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
• Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.
• Note: Not all people may have the maturity assumed and may need tighter controls.

Approach to Motivation:
Decentralization and Delegation – Reduces level of management.
Job Enlargement – Broaden the scope of the individual’s job.
Participative Management – Consult employees in the decision making process.
Performances Appraisal – Employees help set and evaluate objectives.